Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
Supplements studied for cardiovascular disease (CVD).
Overview
Cardiovascular disease supplement research spans many agents with varying strength. Cocoa flavanol–rich products may be linked to lower cardiovascular mortality in large prevention trials, though effects on heart attack and stroke are mixed.
Regular olive oil intake and higher dietary potassium appear associated with lower cardiovascular risk in observational and dietary intervention research; potassium supplement effects are less clear. Low vitamin D levels correlate with higher cardiovascular risk, but vitamin D supplementation has not consistently reduced events in trials. Vitamin K findings are inconsistent across K1 and K2 studies. See the heatmap and evidence reviews below for outcomes by supplement.
Effect graph
Relevant supplements
Relevant supplements sorted by DEX Score.
| Potassium | ★★★★★ | Medium |
| Olive Oil | ★★★★★ | Medium |
| Cocoa | ★★★★★ | Medium |
| Vitamin K | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Lycopene | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Resveratrol | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Nattokinase | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Lutein | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Alpha-Linolenic Acid | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Kefir | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Garlic | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Flaxseed Oil | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Berberine | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Vitamin E | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Vitamin D | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Vitamin B9 (Folate) | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Vitamin B3 (Niacin) | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Eleuthero | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Multivitamin | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Calcium | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Black Tea | ★★★★★ | Low |
| Avocado | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Zeaxanthin | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Quercetin | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Ginkgo | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Flaxseed | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
| Elderberry | ★★★★★ | Very Low / None |
Studies
Find individual evidence reviews for supplements sorted by DEX Score.
28 supplements for , and rated at least stars. All purchase bands. No minimum star filter.
PotassiumView supplement →
Consider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Eating foods high in potassium and low in sodium may help lower the risk of heart disease and stroke.
- Large studies show that people who eat about 3300 mg of potassium a day have a lower chance of heart problems compared to those who eat less than 2000 mg.
- Using salt substitutes that include potassium instead of regular salt can also reduce the risk of stroke and heart problems over time.
- While it is not yet clear whether potassium supplements have the same benefits, eating potassium-rich foods and reducing sodium is generally recommended for heart health.
- The US Food and Drug Administration says that eating foods with potassium and low in sodium can help reduce the risk of stroke and high blood pressure.
Browse 6 studies
RCTPotassium Nitrate in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Randomized Clinical Trial2025n=77
In 77 HFpEF patients, potassium nitrate 6 mmol three times daily for 6 weeks did not improve peak oxygen uptake or exercise work versus potassium chloride in a crossover trial.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 6 weeks
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 77
- Avg age
- ~68
Associations between nine dietary minerals intake and all-cause mortality in individuals with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease2024n=4,125
In 4125 US adults with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, higher dietary magnesium intake linearly associated with lower all-cause mortality; potassium showed no significant linear association.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 4,125
Meta24-Hour Urinary Sodium and Potassium Excretion and Cardiovascular Risk2022n=10,709
In 10,709 adults with median 3270 mg/day urinary sodium, higher sodium excretion (HR 1.60) and sodium-potassium ratio raised cardiovascular risk while higher potassium excretion lowered it (HR 0.69).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 3270 mg/day
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 10,709
- Avg age
- 51.5±12.6
ObservationalDietary Sodium and Potassium Intake and Risk of Non-Fatal Cardiovascular Diseases: The Million Veteran Program2022n=4,827
In 180,156 Million Veteran Program participants, higher sodium intake raised CVD risk (HR 1.09 top vs bottom quintile) while potassium lowered it (HR 0.87); sodium-potassium ratio HR 1.26.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 4,827
- Ages
- 19–107
RCTEffect of Salt Substitution on Cardiovascular Events and Death2021
In 20,995 rural Chinese adults, salt substitute (75% NaCl/25% KCl) for 4.74 years reduced stroke (RR 0.86), major cardiovascular events (RR 0.87), and death (RR 0.88) versus regular salt.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Ages
- 60+
RCTAre low intakes of calcium and potassium important causes of cardiovascular disease?2001
A review argued combined calcium and potassium deficiencies in Western diets contribute importantly to cardiovascular disease beyond single-nutrient effects.
CocoaView supplement →
Consider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Cocoa, especially cocoa rich in natural plant compounds called flavanols, may be good for heart health, though the evidence is mixed.
- A large study in adults without heart disease found that taking a cocoa extract every day for about 3.5 years lowered the risk of death from heart disease by 27%.
- However, it did not prevent heart attacks, strokes, or reduce overall deaths compared with people taking a placebo.
- Other research has linked higher cocoa intake with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease (about 10% lower) and up to 50% lower risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, although eating more than about 90 g of cocoa per week did not provide additional benefit.
- Shorter studies show that cocoa flavanol supplements can improve cholesterol, blood pressure, and markers of future heart disease risk.
- Cocoa and dark chocolate have also been shown to improve blood vessel function, which is important for healthy circulation.
- In 2023, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) allowed a qualified health claim, stating that there is only limited scientific evidence that cocoa flavanols in certain high-flavanol cocoa powders may lower the risk of heart disease.
Browse 21 studies·7 meta-analyses
Systematic reviewThe role of cocoa flavanols in modulating peripheral and cerebral microvascular function in healthy individuals and populations at-risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review2025n=13
A 2025 systematic review of 19 trials found acute cocoa flavanol intake improved microvascular vasodilation in about 86% of studies, while chronic effects were less consistent.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 13
MetaEffects of Cocoa Consumption on Cardiometabolic Risk Markers: Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials2024n=1,986
A meta-analysis of 31 RCTs (1,986 adults) found cocoa consumption lowered total and LDL cholesterol, fasting glucose, and blood pressure over at least 4 weeks.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 1,986
RCTEffect of cocoa flavanol supplementation for the prevention of cardiovascular disease events: the COcoa Supplement and Multivitamin Outcomes Study (COSMOS) randomized clinical trial2022n=410
In 21,442 older adults over 3.6 years, 500 mg/day cocoa flavanols did not significantly reduce total cardiovascular events but lowered cardiovascular death by 27%.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 500 mg/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 410
- Ages
- ≥60
MetaRelationship between chocolate consumption and overall and cause-specific mortality, systematic review and updated meta-analysis2022n=27,111
In 27,111 men followed up to 30 years, higher chocolate consumption was associated with lower cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, with benefits plateauing above about 3 servings per week.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 5 g/day
- Population
- Glaucoma patients
- Participants
- 27,111
MetaChocolate Consumption and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke, and Diabetes: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies2017n=7
A meta-analysis of 14 prospective studies found higher chocolate intake associated with 10–18% lower risks of coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes, with optimal intake around 2–6 servings per week.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 7
- Ages
- 5–16
RCTCocoa flavanol intake improves endothelial function and Framingham Risk Score in healthy men and women: a randomised, controlled, double-masked trial: the Flaviola Health Study2015n=100
In 100 healthy adults aged 35–60 over 1 month, 450 mg/day cocoa flavanols improved flow-mediated dilation, lowered blood pressure and LDL, and improved Framingham risk scores.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 1 month
- Dose
- 450 mg
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 100
- Ages
- 35–60
RCTBlood pressure and endothelial function in healthy, pregnant women after acute and daily consumption of flavanol-rich chocolate: a pilot, randomized controlled trial2013n=23
In 44 pregnant women over 12 weeks, flavanol-rich versus low-flavanol chocolate did not significantly change blood pressure or flow-mediated dilation.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 20 g/day
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 23
- Ages
- 18–35
Characterisation of hypertensive patients with improved endothelial function after dark chocolate consumption2013n=12
In 21 treated hypertensive adults, 75 g/day dark chocolate for 1 week improved endothelial function mainly in younger patients with higher baseline cardiovascular risk.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 75 g/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 12
- Ages
- 40–65
RCTEffects of dark chocolate and cocoa consumption on endothelial function and arterial stiffness in overweight adults2013
In overweight adults, 22 g/day high-flavanol cocoa for 4 weeks improved endothelial function and reduced arterial stiffness in women without changing blood pressure or insulin resistance.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 4 weeks
- Dose
- 22 g/day
- Population
- Women
MetaEffects of chocolate, cocoa, and flavan-3-ols on cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials2012n=1,297
A meta-analysis of 42 RCTs found cocoa or flavan-3-ols improved flow-mediated dilation and insulin resistance and modestly lowered blood pressure and LDL cholesterol.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 50 mg/day
- Participants
- 1,297
MetaChocolate consumption and cardiometabolic disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis2011n=114,009
A meta-analysis of seven observational studies linked higher chocolate intake to 37% lower cardiovascular disease and 29% lower stroke risk, though no RCTs were included.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 114,009
- Ages
- 18+
RCTDose-dependent increases in flow-mediated dilation following acute cocoa ingestion in healthy older adults2011n=23
In 23 healthy older adults, acute cocoa doses of 5–26 g increased flow-mediated dilation in a dose-dependent manner 1–2 hours after ingestion.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 5–26 g/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 23
MetaFlavonoid-rich cocoa consumption affects multiple cardiovascular risk factors in a meta-analysis of short-term studies2011n=1,106
A meta-analysis of 24 flavanol-rich cocoa trials found significant reductions in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, LDL cholesterol, and improvements in flow-mediated dilation and insulin resistance.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 500 mg/day
- Participants
- 1,106
RCTThe effect of polyphenol-rich dark chocolate on fasting capillary whole blood glucose, total cholesterol, blood pressure and glucocorticoids in healthy overweight and obese subjects2009
In overweight adults, 2 weeks of polyphenol-rich dark chocolate at 500 or 1,000 mg polyphenols reduced fasting glucose and blood pressure similarly versus baseline.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 2 weeks
- Dose
- 20 g/day
- Population
- Adults
RCTA double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of the effects of dark chocolate and cocoa on variables associated with neuropsychological functioning and cardiovascular health: clinical findings from a sample of healthy, cognitively intact older adults2008n=101
In 101 healthy older adults over 6 weeks, daily dark chocolate and cocoa did not significantly change neuropsychological performance or cardiovascular measures versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 6 weeks
- Dose
- 37 g dark chocolate + 237 mL cocoa beverage/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 101
RCTCocoa consumption for 2 wk enhances insulin-mediated vasodilatation without improving blood pressure or insulin resistance in essential hypertension2008n=20
In 20 hypertensive adults over 2 weeks, flavanol-rich cocoa improved insulin-mediated brachial artery dilation but did not reduce blood pressure or insulin resistance.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 2 weeks
- Dose
- 150 mL 2×/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 20
MetaFlavonoids, flavonoid-rich foods, and cardiovascular risk: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials2008
A flavonoid meta-analysis found chocolate improved flow-mediated dilation and lowered systolic and diastolic blood pressure, while effects of other flavonoid sources were mixed.
- Effect
- Benefit
RCTAcute effect of oral flavonoid-rich dark chocolate intake on coronary circulation, as compared with non-flavonoid white chocolate, by transthoracic Doppler echocardiography in healthy adults2007n=39
In 39 healthy men over 2 weeks, flavanol-rich dark chocolate 45 g/day improved coronary flow velocity reserve versus white chocolate control.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 2 weeks
- Dose
- 45 g/day
- Population
- Men
- Participants
- 39
- Ages
- 23–40
ObservationalCocoa intake, blood pressure, and cardiovascular mortality: the Zutphen Elderly Study2006n=314
In 470 elderly men, higher habitual cocoa intake was associated with lower blood pressure and about 50% lower cardiovascular and all-cause mortality over 15 years.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 2.11 g/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 314
RCTShort-term administration of dark chocolate is followed by a significant increase in insulin sensitivity and a decrease in blood pressure in healthy persons2005n=15
In 15 healthy adults over 15 days, 100 g/day dark chocolate improved insulin sensitivity and lowered systolic and diastolic blood pressure versus white chocolate.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 15 days
- Dose
- 100 g/day
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 15
RCTFlavonoid-rich dark chocolate improves endothelial function and increases plasma epicatechin concentrations in healthy adults2004n=21
In 21 healthy adults over 2 weeks, high-flavanol dark chocolate improved flow-mediated dilation and raised plasma epicatechin without changing blood pressure or lipids.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 2 weeks
- Dose
- 46 g/day
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 21
Olive OilView supplement →
Consider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Eating olive oil regularly, about 2 tablespoons (20 grams) a day, is linked to a lower risk of heart disease and living longer.
- Studies show that olive oil’s healthy fats and antioxidants help improve blood pressure, cholesterol, blood sugar, and reduce inflammation, all important for heart health.
- A Mediterranean diet that includes extra virgin olive oil reduces the risk of stroke and other major heart problems.
- Olive oil is especially beneficial when it replaces less healthy fats like saturated fats.
- The U.S. FDA allows olive oil products with high oleic acid to claim they may reduce heart disease risk.
- Including olive oil as part of a healthy diet can help protect the heart and improve overall health.
Browse 12 studies·2 meta-analyses
ObservationalConsumption of Olive Oil and Risk of Total and Cause-Specific Mortality Among U.S. Adults2022n=60,582
In 92,383 US adults followed 28 years, olive oil intake >7 g/day was associated with 19% lower all-cause mortality (HR 0.81) vs rarely consuming olive oil.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 7 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 60,582
MetaEffect of olive oil consumption on cardiovascular disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, and all-cause mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis2022n=806,203
A meta-analysis of 806,203 participants found each olive oil increment associated with 16% lower cardiovascular disease risk and reduced all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 25 g/day
- Participants
- 806,203
ObservationalOlive oil consumption is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke2022n=747
In three cohorts (AWHS, SUN, EPIC-Spain), olive oil intake ≥30 g/day was associated with lower CVD and stroke risk, strongest for virgin olive oil.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 30 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 747
ObservationalOlive Oil Consumption and Cardiovascular Risk in U.S. Adults2020n=61,181
In 92,978 US adults followed 24 years, olive oil intake >7 g/day was associated with 14% lower CVD and 18% lower CHD risk vs nonconsumers.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 7 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 61,181
MetaMediterranean-style diet for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease2019n=12,461
A Cochrane meta-analysis found Mediterranean-style diet interventions associated with reduced cardiovascular events in primary and secondary prevention populations vs minimal intervention.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 46 months
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 12,461
ObservationalOlive oil consumption and 10-year (2002-2012) cardiovascular disease incidence: the ATTICA study2019n=2,020
In 2020 ATTICA participants followed ~8.4 years, exclusive olive oil use was associated with 93% lower 10-year cardiovascular disease incidence vs nonuse (RR 0.07).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 10 years
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 2,020
MetaThe Mediterranean Diet and Cardiovascular Disease: Gaps in the Evidence and Research Challenges2019
A narrative review concluded cohort studies support Mediterranean diet benefits for CVD, but RCT evidence is limited to testing individual components such as olive oil or nuts.
- Effect
- Benefit
ObservationalPrimary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts2018n=7,447
A revised PREDIMED analysis of 7447 high-risk adults (ages 55–80) found a Mediterranean diet with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts reduced major cardiovascular events over 4.8 years versus a low-fat control (HR 0.69 and 0.72).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 7,447
- Ages
- 55–80
Olive oil intake and mortality within the Spanish population (EPIC-Spain)2012n=40,622
In 40,622 Spanish EPIC participants followed 13.4 years, highest olive oil intake quartile had 26% lower all-cause mortality and 44% lower cardiovascular mortality vs nonconsumers.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 10 g/day
- Participants
- 40,622
- Ages
- 29–69
ObservationalRisk of first non-fatal myocardial infarction negatively associated with olive oil consumption: a case-control study in Spain2002n=171
A Spanish case-control study of 171 first MI patients and matched controls found highest olive oil intake (median 54 g/day) associated with 82% lower first MI risk after adjustment (OR 0.18).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 54 g/day
- Population
- Patients with myocardial infarction
- Participants
- 171
ObservationalConsumption of olive oil, butter, and vegetable oils and coronary heart disease risk factors. The Research Group ATS-RF2 of the Italian National Research Council1990
A cross-sectional study of 4903 Italian adults (ages 20–59) found olive oil intake inversely associated with cholesterol, glucose, and systolic blood pressure, while butter linked to higher risk factors.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Ages
- 20–59
ObservationalThe diet and 15-year death rate in the seven countries study1986n=11,579
In 11,579 men across 15 Seven Countries cohorts followed 15 years, higher monounsaturated fat (mainly oleic acid from olive oil) correlated with lower all-cause and coronary death rates.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Men
- Participants
- 11,579
- Ages
- 40–59
LycopeneView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Large population studies suggest that people who eat more lycopene, or have higher lycopene levels in their blood, may have a slightly lower risk of heart problems such as heart disease, heart attack, stroke, and even death.
- But when lycopene has been tested in clinical trials, taking it as a supplement at different doses has not consistently improved cholesterol, blood pressure, or blood vessel health.
Browse 10 studies·4 meta-analyses
ObservationalDietary Intake of Tomato and Lycopene and Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality: Results From a Prospective Study2021n=101,781
A prospective study of 101,781 US adults in the PLCO trial found higher raw tomato, tomato catsup, and moderate lycopene intake associated with lower all-cause and cardiovascular mortality over 1.67 million person-years of follow-up.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 101,781
- Ages
- 55–74
MetaThe effects of lycopene supplementation on serum insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels and cardiovascular disease: A dose-response meta-analysis of clinical trials2021
A dose-response meta-analysis of clinical trials found that overall lycopene supplementation did not significantly reduce IGF-1 levels (WMD = −6.74 ng/mL; 95% CI: −23.01 to 9.52; p = 0.42), though subgroup analyses showed significant reductions at doses ≥15 mg/day, for <12 weeks and in adults ≥60 yrs.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 15 mg/day
- Population
- Adults
- Ages
- 60+
Systematic reviewEffect of Dietary and Supplemental Lycopene on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis2020
A systematic review and meta-analysis of 43 lycopene intervention trials (doses 1.44–75 mg/day) found no significant pooled effects on blood pressure or lipids compared with control groups.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 1.44–75 mg/day
MetaLycopene and tomato and risk of cardiovascular diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological evidence2019
A meta-analysis of 25 observational studies found highest lycopene intake or serum levels associated with 26% lower stroke risk, 14% lower CVD risk, and 37% lower mortality risk in adults.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
MetaTomato and lycopene supplementation and cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis2017
A meta-analysis of 21 tomato/lycopene intervention trials found tomato supplementation reduced LDL cholesterol (−0.22 mmol/L), IL-6, and improved flow-mediated dilation, while lycopene alone reduced systolic BP by 5.66 mmHg.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
ObservationalPlasma lycopene, other carotenoids, and retinol and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women2004n=876
A nested case-control study of 483 women in the Women's Health Study found higher plasma lycopene associated with lower cardiovascular disease risk (RR 0.66 for upper vs lower half of lycopene levels over 4.8 years).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 876
ObservationalDietary lycopene, tomato-based food products and cardiovascular disease in women2003n=39,876
A prospective cohort of 39,876 women over 7.2 years found frequent tomato sauce intake (≥2 servings/week) associated with 32% lower CVD risk, though dietary lycopene quintiles alone showed no significant trend.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 39,876
ObservationalPlasma carotenoids and tocopherols and risk of myocardial infarction in a low-risk population of US male physicians2003
A nested case-control study of 531 male physicians followed up to 13 years found no overall protective association between baseline plasma carotenoids or tocopherols and subsequent myocardial infarction risk.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Smokers
ObservationalAntioxidant state and mortality from coronary heart disease in Lithuanian and Swedish men: concomitant cross sectional study of men aged 501997n=109
A cross-sectional study of 50-year-old men in Lithuania vs Sweden found lower plasma lycopene (327 vs 615 nmol/L) and beta-carotene alongside shorter LDL oxidation lag time in the higher CHD-mortality Lithuanian group.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 109
- Ages
- 50+
ObservationalLycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC Study1997
In the EURAMIC multicenter case-control study, adipose tissue lycopene remained independently protective against myocardial infarction (OR 0.52 for 90th vs 10th percentile) after adjusting for other carotenoids.
- Effect
- Benefit
Vitamin KView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- It is not clear if eating or taking vitamin K protects against heart and blood vessel diseases because study findings vary.
- Many studies have found no clear link between vitamin K1 or K2 intake and lowering risk of heart attacks, strokes, or death from heart disease, although eating more vitamin K1 might modestly lower the chance of coronary heart disease.
- A study of middle-aged adults in Denmark found that people who ate the most vitamin K1 had a 21% lower risk of being hospitalized for heart diseases related to blocked arteries; this benefit lessened if they ate more than 100 micrograms per day.
- Eating more vitamin K2 was linked to a 14% lower risk, but very high intakes might increase risk, possibly because vitamin K2 foods like cheese and eggs are high in fat.
- Researchers are also studying if vitamin K can slow down hardening of heart valves and arteries, which raise heart disease risk.
- In older adults with heart artery calcium buildup, taking 500 micrograms of vitamin K1 daily for three years slowed the buildup compared to taking just a multivitamin.
- But in people with heart valve disease or on dialysis, vitamin K2 supplements did not help slow disease or reduce heart events or death.
Browse 15 studies·5 meta-analyses
MetaEffect of Menaquinone-7 (MK-7) Supplementation on Anthropometric Measurements, Glycemic Indices, and Lipid Profiles: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials2025
In a meta-analysis in adults, based on the findings of the present systematic review and meta-analysis, MK-7 may have beneficial effects on glycemic control and TC, although further highly qualified original research is needed for a consistent conclusion.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
RCTEffects of One-Year Menaquinone-7 Supplementation on Vascular Stiffness and Blood Pressure in Post-Menopausal Women2025n=83
In an RCT of 83 participants, 180 µg MK-7/day, further research is needed to unravel the beneficial effects of MK-7 in post-menopausal women.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 180 µg MK-7/day
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Participants
- 83
MetaThe effect of vitamin K supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis2024
In a meta-analysis in adults, however, no significant effect was observed on other variables.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
RCTThe effect of vitamin K1 on arterial calcification activity in subjects with diabetes mellitus: a post hoc analysis of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial2022n=149
In an RCT of 149 participants, 10 mg/day, for 3 months, further long-term studies are needed to test this hypothesis.This trial was registered at anzctr.org.au as ACTRN12616000024448.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 3 months
- Dose
- 10 mg/day
- Population
- Diabetic patients
- Participants
- 149
RCTVitamin K2 and D in Patients With Aortic Valve Calcification: A Randomized Double-Blinded Clinical Trial2022n=10
In an RCT of 10 participants, 720 µg MK-7 + 25 µg vitamin D/day, for 24 months, in elderly men with an AVC score >300 AU, 2 years MK-7 plus vitamin D supplementation did not influence AVC progression.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 24 months
- Dose
- 720 µg MK-7 + 25 µg vitamin D/day
- Population
- Older men
- Participants
- 10
- Avg age
- ~71
ObservationalVitamin K Intake and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in the Danish Diet Cancer and Health Study2021n=8,726
In an observational study of 8,726 participants, likewise for vitamin K 2 , the risk of an ASCVD-related hospitalization for participants with the highest intakes was 14% lower than participants with the lowest vitamin K 2 intake (hazard ratio, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.81-0.91).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 8,726
- Ages
- 52–60
MetaVitamin K status, cardiovascular disease, and all-cause mortality: a participant-level meta-analysis of 3 US cohorts2020n=3,891
In a meta-analysis of 3,891 participants, the risk of CVD did not significantly differ according to circulating phylloquinone [fully adjusted HR (95% CI) relative to >1.0 nmol/L: ≤0.5 nmol/L, 1.12 (0.94, 1.33); >0.5-1.0 nmol/L, 1.02 (0.86, 1.20)].
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 3,891
- Avg age
- ~65
MetaAssociation of vitamin K with cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis2019n=222,592
In a meta-analysis of 222,592 participants, no significant association was observed between circulating total osteocalcin and all-cause mortality or total CVD.
- Participants
- 222,592
RCTThe effect of vitamin K2 supplementation on vascular calcification in haemodialysis patients: a 1-year follow-up randomized trial2019n=102
In an RCT of 102 participants, for 3 months, oral administration of vitamin K2 in patients on haemodialysis reduced serum uc-MGP levels but did not have an effect in the progression of aortic calcification.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 3 months
- Dose
- 2 g/day
- Population
- Haemodialysis patients
- Participants
- 102
RCTEffect of vitamin K supplementation on insulin sensitivity: a meta-analysis2017n=1,077
In an RCT of 1,077 participants, vitamin K supplementation did not affect insulin sensitivity as measured by homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, fasting plasma glucose, fasting plasma insulin, C-reactive protein, adiponectin, leptin, and interleukin-6 levels.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Participants
- 1,077
Systematic reviewVitamin K for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease2015n=60
A Cochrane review found only one small RCT (60 healthy adults, 3 months) of vitamin K2; it showed no effects on blood pressure or lipids and no cardiovascular clinical events, leaving evidence insufficient for primary prevention.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 3 months
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 60
- Ages
- 40–65
RCTDietary intake of vitamin K is inversely associated with mortality risk2014n=7,216
In an RCT of 7,216 participants, energy-adjusted baseline dietary phylloquinone intake was inversely associated with a significantly reduced risk of cancer and all-cause mortality after controlling for potential confounders (HR: 0.54; 95% CI: 0.30, 0.96; and HR: 0.64; 95% CI: 0.45, 0.90, respectively).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 7,216
Systematic reviewIs vitamin K consumption associated with cardio-metabolic disorders? A systematic review2010
In a systematic review in adults, currently there is no evidence for an effect of vitamin K1, but results for vitamin K2 look promising.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
RCTVitamin K supplementation and progression of coronary artery calcium in older men and women2009n=367
In an RCT of 367 participants, this trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00183001.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 367
ObservationalVitamin K1 intake and coronary calcification2005
In an observational study in older adults, we found no significant correlation between CAC score and vitamin K1 intake (r = 0.132, P = 0.106).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Older adults
- Ages
- 39–45
Alpha-Linolenic AcidView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Eating foods rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), like flaxseed or hempseed oil, is linked to a lower risk of heart disease and heart attacks.
- People who eat more ALA tend to have fewer deaths from heart problems.
- However, studies testing ALA supplements show mixed results, and it's unclear if ALA alone provides strong heart protection.
- More research is needed to confirm how much ALA helps.
- It might be especially helpful if you don't eat much fish.
Browse 3 studies·3 meta-analyses
MetaDietary intake and biomarkers of alpha linolenic acid and risk of all cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies2021n=26
Meta-analysis of 41 cohort studies in 1.2 million participants linked higher ALA intake to lower all-cause, CVD, and CHD mortality, but slightly higher cancer mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 1 g/day
- Participants
- 26
Systematic reviewDietary Intake and Biomarkers of α-Linolenic Acid and Mortality: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies2021n=58,634
Meta-analysis of 34 cohorts in 658,634 participants linked ALA intake to lower CVD mortality, with mixed associations for all-cause and other disease mortality.
- Participants
- 58,634
MetaOmega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease2020n=162,796
Cochrane meta-analysis of 86 RCTs in 162,796 adults found increasing ALA intake probably made little or no difference to all-cause mortality or major cardiovascular events.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 12–88 months
- Dose
- 0.5 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 162,796
LuteinView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Some studies suggest that people who eat more lutein in their diet may have a lower risk of heart disease, stroke, and metabolic syndrome. One large analysis showed about 12% less risk of heart disease, 18% less risk of stroke, and 25% less risk of metabolic syndrome in those with higher lutein levels compared to those with lower levels.
- However, when researchers gave people supplements of lutein (10 mg) with zeaxanthin (2 mg) daily for nearly five years, it did not reduce the chances of heart attack, stroke, chest pain, or death from heart disease in adults aged 50–85. It is not yet known whether higher doses, or use in younger people, would be effective.
Browse 3 studies·1 meta-analysis
MetaThe effects of lutein on cardiometabolic health across the life course: a systematic review and meta-analysis2016n=387,569
A systematic review and meta-analysis found lutein intake inversely associated with some cardiometabolic outcomes but evidence varied by life stage and endpoint.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Pregnant women
- Participants
- 387,569
RCTEffect of long-chain ω-3 fatty acids and lutein + zeaxanthin supplements on cardiovascular outcomes: results of the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial2014n=4,203
The AREDS2 cardiovascular ancillary study (4,203 participants) found adding lutein/zeaxanthin or omega-3 to AREDS did not reduce cardiovascular events over ~5 years.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 4.8 years
- Dose
- 10 mg lutein + 2 mg zeaxanthin/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 4,203
- Ages
- 50–85
ObservationalAntioxidant vitamins and coronary heart disease risk: a pooled analysis of 9 cohorts2004n=172
A pooled analysis of 9 cohorts (293,172 subjects) found no strong association between antioxidant vitamin or carotenoid intake and coronary heart disease risk.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Participants
- 172
NattokinaseView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Eating soy foods may help protect your heart and reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke.
- Studies show people who eat more soy tend to have fewer heart problems, lower chances of dying from heart disease, and better overall health outcomes.
Browse 7 studies·1 meta-analysis
ObservationalAssociation of soy food with cardiovascular outcomes and all-cause mortality in a Chinese population: a nationwide prospective cohort study2022n=97,930
A prospective cohort of 97,930 Chinese adults (≥40 years) found higher soy intake (≥60 g/day) associated with lower cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality over follow-up.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- median 3.2 years follow-up
- Dose
- 60 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 97,930
- Ages
- 40+
ObservationalAssociation between Soy Food and Dietary Soy Isoflavone Intake and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Women: A Prospective Cohort Study in Korea2021n=5,012
In 4713 Korean women (ages 40–69), higher soy food and isoflavone intake was associated with lower incident cardiovascular disease over follow-up.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Participants
- 5,012
- Ages
- 40–69
ObservationalConsumption of soy products and cardiovascular mortality in people with and without cardiovascular disease: a prospective cohort study of 0.5 million individuals2021n=500,000
In 487,034 Chinese adults without CVD and 22,923 with prior CCD, higher soy product intake was associated with lower cardiovascular mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 1–3 days
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 500,000
RCTDietary Soy Consumption and Cardiovascular Mortality among Chinese People with Type 2 Diabetes2021n=26,139
In 26,139 Chinese adults with type 2 diabetes, higher soy consumption was associated with lower cardiovascular mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 1–3 days
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 26,139
- Ages
- 30–79
MetaSoy product consumption and the risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies2018n=209
A meta-analysis of cohort studies found higher soy product intake associated with lower all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 209
ObservationalAssociation of dietary intake of soy, beans, and isoflavones with risk of cerebral and myocardial infarctions in Japanese populations: the Japan Public Health Center-based (JPHC) study cohort I2007n=587
In 40,462 Japanese adults (ages 40–59), higher soy and isoflavone intake was associated with lower cerebral and myocardial infarction risk.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Participants
- 587
- Ages
- 40–59
ObservationalProspective study on usual dietary phytoestrogen intake and cardiovascular disease risk in Western women2005n=16,165
In 16,165 Dutch women (ages 49–70), habitual low phytoestrogen intake was not clearly associated with incident cardiovascular disease.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 16,165
- Ages
- 49–70
ResveratrolView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Eating more resveratrol does not seem to lower the risk of heart disease.
- Taking resveratrol supplements for up to six months also does not improve cholesterol or blood fat levels in people at high risk for heart problems.
- One small study found that a low dose of resveratrol slightly improved heart pumping and blood vessel health in people who had a heart attack before, but it did not lower blood pressure or inflammation.
Browse 9 studies·6 meta-analyses
MetaResveratrol supplementation efficiently improves endothelial health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials2022
A meta-analysis of RCTs found resveratrol supplementation significantly improved flow-mediated dilation and lowered ICAM-1 versus placebo in adults with cardiometabolic risk.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Patients with cardiovascular diseases
MetaEfficacy of resveratrol supplementation in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials2020
A meta-analysis found resveratrol supplementation significantly reduced liver enzymes and improved some NAFLD markers versus placebo in clinical trials.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Patients with NAFLD
MetaCan resveratrol supplement change inflammatory mediators? A systematic review and meta-analysis on randomized clinical trials2019n=658
A meta-analysis of RCTs (658 participants) found resveratrol significantly lowered CRP and TNF-α but not IL-6 versus placebo.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 658
- Ages
- 18–75
MetaThe Effects of Resveratrol Supplementation on Endothelial Function and Blood Pressures Among Patients with Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials2019
A meta-analysis in metabolic syndrome found resveratrol improved endothelial function in some trials but did not consistently lower blood pressure versus placebo.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Patients with metabolic syndrome
MetaEvidence-based nutritional and pharmacological interventions targeting chronic low-grade inflammation in middle-age and older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis2018
An umbrella meta-analysis in middle-age and older adults found resveratrol modestly lowered IL-6 and CRP among anti-inflammatory interventions for chronic low-grade inflammation.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 0.17 mg/day
- Population
- Older adults
MetaEffect of resveratrol on glucose control and insulin sensitivity: a meta-analysis of 11 randomized controlled trials2014n=388
A meta-analysis of 11 RCTs (388 participants) found resveratrol did not significantly improve fasting glucose or insulin sensitivity overall versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Participants
- 388
RCTResveratrol levels and all-cause mortality in older community-dwelling adults2014
In 783 older community-dwelling adults, higher urinary resveratrol metabolites were not associated with lower mortality, inflammation, or cardiovascular disease.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
RCTResveratrol blunts the positive effects of exercise training on cardiovascular health in aged men2013n=14
In aged men, 250 mg/day resveratrol during exercise training blunted expected gains in cardiovascular health and HDL cholesterol versus exercise plus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 8 weeks
- Dose
- 250 mg/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 14
- Avg age
- 65±1
RCTCardioprotection by resveratrol: A human clinical trial in patients with stable coronary artery disease2012
In post-MI patients over 3 months, resveratrol 10 mg/day improved flow-mediated vasodilation and select hemorheological parameters versus placebo.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 3 months
- Dose
- 10 mg/day
- Population
- Patients with myocardial infarction
BerberineView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- It is uncertain if berberine helps heart and blood vessel diseases.
- A review of small studies found that berberine by itself does not improve cholesterol or artery health but may reduce inflammation and stroke severity.
- Taking berberine along with statin medicines might improve cholesterol, inflammation, artery health, and stroke outcomes better than statins alone.
- The quality of the studies was low, so more research is needed.
Browse 1 study·1 meta-analysis
MetaEfficacy and safety of berberine for several cardiovascular diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials2023n=4,606
A meta-analysis of 44 cardiovascular RCTs in 4,606 patients found berberine alone or with statins reduced stroke severity scores, inflammation, and carotid intima-media thickness without raising adverse events.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Cardiovascular disease patients
- Participants
- 4,606
Flaxseed OilView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Flaxseed oil contains alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), a type of healthy fat.
- Studies looking at people's diets have found that eating about 1.2 grams more ALA daily is linked to a 20% lower chance of dying from heart disease, especially in people who already have heart problems.
- The benefits of ALA may be stronger for those who do not eat much fish oil.
- However, it is not yet known if taking flaxseed oil supplements gives the same heart benefits.
- Other factors like diet and lifestyle might also play a role in these health effects.
Browse 2 studies·1 meta-analysis
ObservationalInterplay between different polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in men2005n=45,722
In 45,722 men followed 14 years, long-chain and intermediate-chain n-3 PUFA intakes were each associated with lower coronary heart disease risk, including sudden death, independent of n-6 intake.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 11.2 g/day
- Population
- CAD patients
- Participants
- 45,722
MetaDietary alpha-linolenic acid is associated with reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease, but increased prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis2004
A meta-analysis found high dietary alpha-linolenic acid associated with lower fatal CHD risk (RR 0.79) but higher prostate cancer risk (RR 1.70, 95% CI 1.12–2.58) in observational studies.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- CAD patients
GarlicView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- A small study found that taking a specific aged black garlic supplement daily for 6 weeks did not improve blood pressure, blood sugar, cholesterol, or body measurements in people with moderately high cholesterol.
- However, men with higher diastolic blood pressure did see a 5 mmHg drop in blood pressure compared to placebo.
- It is still unclear whether garlic supplements help people with heart disease.
Browse 4 studies
RCTEffects of an Optimized Aged Garlic Extract on Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Moderate Hypercholesterolemic Subjects: A Randomized, Crossover, Double-Blind, Sustainedand Controlled Study2022n=75
In a 6-week crossover RCT of 67 adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia, 250 mg/day aged black garlic extract (1.25 mg S-allyl-L-cysteine) improved cardiovascular risk factors versus placebo.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 6 weeks
- Dose
- 250 mg/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 75
- Ages
- 18+
RCTInhibiting progression of coronary calcification using Aged Garlic Extract in patients receiving statin therapy: a preliminary study2004n=10
In a 1-year pilot RCT of 19 patients on statins, 4 mL/day aged garlic extract showed a trend toward slower coronary calcium progression on electron beam tomography versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 1 year
- Dose
- 4 mL/day aged garlic extract
- Population
- Patients receiving statin therapy
- Participants
- 10
Clinical trialDietary supplementation with aged garlic extract inhibits ADP-induced platelet aggregation in humans2000
In normolipidemic subjects given 5 mL/day aged garlic extract for 13 weeks, ADP-induced platelet aggregation was significantly inhibited versus baseline.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 13 weeks
- Dose
- 5 mL/day aged garlic extract
ObservationalProtective effect of chronic garlic intake on elastic properties of aorta in the elderly1997n=101
In a cross-sectional study of 101 adults (ages 50–80) taking ≥300 mg/day standardized garlic powder for ≥2 years, aortic pulse wave velocity and elastic vascular resistance were lower than in matched controls.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 300 mg/day
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 101
- Ages
- 50–80
KefirView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- A summary of six small studies in people with conditions that raise the risk of heart disease (such as diabetes, high cholesterol, metabolic syndrome, or obesity) found that drinking kefir (180–600 mL daily for 3–12 weeks) did not improve weight, cholesterol, or blood sugar compared with a control.
- The findings are less certain because the studies varied widely in size, dose, duration, and type of participants.
Browse 1 study·1 meta-analysis
MetaEffects of Kefir Consumption on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials2023n=314
A meta-analysis of 6 kefir RCTs (314 subjects) found kefir reduced fasting insulin (−3.69 µIU/mL) and HOMA-IR (−2.56) but did not significantly change lipids, HbA1c, or body weight.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 314
EleutheroView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- In people at risk of heart disease, taking eleuthero fruit extract daily for 3 months slightly lowered systolic (upper number) blood pressure and improved artery stiffness but did not improve other heart health measures.
- A higher dose did not provide any extra benefit.
- More research is needed to know if eleuthero fruit can help prevent heart disease.
Browse 2 studies
RCTThe fruit of Acanthopanax senticosus Harms improves arterial stiffness and blood pressure: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial2020n=76
In 76 healthy adults over 12 weeks, 500 mg/day Acanthopanax senticosus fruit significantly reduced systolic BP (−7.7 vs +0.1 mmHg), arterial stiffness (baPWV), and increased eNOS phosphorylation versus placebo.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 500 mg/day
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 76
- Ages
- 20–64
RCTThe effects of A. senticosus supplementation on serum lipid profiles, biomarkers of oxidative stress, and lymphocyte DNA damage in postmenopausal women2008
In 40 postmenopausal women over 6 months, A. senticosus significantly lowered LDL (−17 mg/dL), LDL/HDL ratio, protein-carbonyl, and lymphocyte DNA damage versus calcium control.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 6 months
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Ages
- 40–65
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)View supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Taking niacin by mouth does not seem to lower the risk of heart attacks or strokes in people with or without heart disease.
- Earlier studies suggested possible benefits, but newer and larger studies show that niacin does not actually prevent heart problems or improve survival.
- People taking niacin also experience side effects more often.
- Scientists have also found that higher levels of niacin’s breakdown products in the blood may be linked to a greater risk of heart events.
- For these reasons, niacin is no longer recommended to prevent heart disease.
Browse 12 studies·5 meta-analyses
MetaA terminal metabolite of niacin promotes vascular inflammation and contributes to cardiovascular disease risk2024n=974
A meta-analysis of 974 participants found that phenome-wide association analysis of the genetic variant rs10496731, which was significantly associated with both 2PY and 4PY levels, revealed an association of this variant with levels of soluble vascular adhesion molecule 1 (sVCAM-1).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Cardiac patients
- Participants
- 974
MetaSupplemental Vitamins and Minerals for CVD Prevention and Treatment2018
A systematic review found moderate evidence for folic acid/B-vitamin cardiovascular benefits but no clear preventive benefit from calcium, vitamin D, multivitamins, or selenium on CVD or all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- No Benefit
MetaNiacin for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular events2017n=39,195
A meta-analysis of 39195 participants found that 2 g/day for 33–71 years participants randomised to niacin were more likely to discontinue treatment due to side effects than participants randomised to control group (RR 2.17, 95% CI 1.70 to 2.77; participants = 33,539; studies = 17; I 2 = 77%; moderate-quality evidence).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 2 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 39,195
- Ages
- 33–71
MetaEffect on cardiovascular risk of high density lipoprotein targeted drug treatments niacin, fibrates, and CETP inhibitors: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials including 117,411 patients2014n=117,411
A meta-analysis of 117411 participants found that neither niacin, fibrates, nor CETP inhibitors, three highly effective agents for increasing high density lipoprotein levels, reduced all cause mortality, coronary heart disease mortality, myocardial infarction, or stroke in patients treated with statins.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Participants
- 117,411
RCTExtended-release niacin therapy and risk of ischemic stroke in patients with cardiovascular disease: the Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome with low HDL/High Triglycerides: Impact on Global Health Outcome (AIM-HIGH) trial2013n=3,414
A randomized trial of 3414 patients with cardiovascular disease found that 2000 mg/day in the intention-to-treat analysis, there were 50 fatal or nonfatal ischemic strokes: 18 (1.06%) in placebo arm versus 32 (1.86%) in ERN arm (hazard ratio [HR], 1.78 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.00-3.17; P=0.050).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 2000 mg/day
- Population
- Patients With Cardiovascular Disease
- Participants
- 3,414
- Avg age
- 64±9
MetaThe current state of niacin in cardiovascular disease prevention: a systematic review and meta-regression2013n=9,959
A meta-analysis of 9959 participants found that niacin use was associated with a significant reduction in the composite endpoints of any CVD event (OR: 0.66; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.49 to 0.89; p = 0.007) and major coronary heart disease event (OR: 0.75; 95% CI: 0.59 to 0.96; p = 0.02).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 9,959
RCTThe Effect of Lipid Modification on Peripheral Artery Disease after Endovascular Intervention Trial (ELIMIT)2013n=102
A randomized trial of 102 found that 40 mg/day non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was significantly reduced at 12 months with triple-therapy compared with mono-therapy (p = 0.01).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 24 months
- Dose
- 40 mg/day
- Population
- Peripheral artery disease patients
- Participants
- 102
MetaEffect of niacin therapy on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease2010n=5,137
A meta-analysis of 5137 participants found that niacin or nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) raises the levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) by about 30% to 35%.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Coronary artery disease patients
- Participants
- 5,137
RCTSimvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease2001n=160
A randomized trial of 160 patients with coronary disease found that the average stenosis progressed by 3.9 percent with placebos, 1.8 percent with antioxidants (P=0.16 for the comparison with the placebo group), and 0.7 percent with simvastatin-niacin plus antioxidants (P=0.004) and regressed by 0.4 percent with simvastatin-niacin alone.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Patients With Coronary Disease
- Participants
- 160
RCTPharmacological modulation of gastric emptying rate of solids as measured by the carbon labelled octanoic acid breath test: influence of erythromycin and propantheline1994
A randomized trial in healthy adults found that propantheline significantly reduced the gastric emptying rate, with a decreased gastric emptying coefficient (p = 0.0007) and an increased gastric half emptying time (p = 0.0168) in all subjects, but no change in the lag phase (p = 0.1214).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Healthy adults
RCTReduction of mortality in the Stockholm Ischaemic Heart Disease Secondary Prevention Study by combined treatment with clofibrate and nicotinic acid1988n=279
A randomized trial of 279 patients with a triglyceride level greater than 1 found that secondly, it was most pronounced in the 44% of the treated patients who had a lowering of the serum triglyceride by 30% or more, and in this subgroup the reduction of IHD mortality was 60% (p less than 0.01).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 5 years
- Population
- Patients With A Triglyceride Level Greater Than 1
- Participants
- 279
- Ages
- 60+
Controlled trialFifteen year mortality in Coronary Drug Project patients: long-term benefit with niacin1986n=8,341
A study of 8341 (ages 30–64) found that mortality in the niacin group was 11% lower than in the placebo group (52.0 versus 58.2%; p = 0.0004).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Men
- Participants
- 8,341
- Ages
- 30–64
Vitamin B9 (Folate)View supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Taking folic acid can lower the risk of stroke by about 10%, especially in people who do not get folic acid from fortified foods and who do not already have heart disease.
- It may also slightly reduce the overall risk of heart-related problems but does not affect heart attacks or death.
- The biggest benefits are seen in younger people and those who take folic acid for shorter times.
- Folic acid lowers a harmful substance called homocysteine but does not always improve other heart health measures in high-risk groups.
Browse 16 studies·9 meta-analyses
Association of folate intake with cardiovascular-disease mortality and all-cause mortality among people at high risk of cardiovascular-disease2022n=14,234
A study of 14234 adults found that after multivariate adjustment, a J shaped association was found: modest intake of TFE and DFE was associated with lower risk of CVD-mortality and all-cause mortality, whereas higher intake did not persistently reduce these risks.
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 14,234
RCTEffect of Vitamin B6, B9, and B12 Supplementation on Homocysteine Level and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Stroke Patients: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials2021n=8,513
A meta-analysis of 8513 participants found that risk ratio (RR) was calculated for determining the risk of stroke, major cardiovascular disorder, and vascular death by using a fixed-effect model.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Men
- Participants
- 8,513
MetaThe effect of folic acid in patients with cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis2019n=47,523
A meta-analysis of 47523 participants found that our meta-analysis showed that cardiovascular patients who received folic acid therapy had significantly decreased risk of stroke (RR = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.77-0.94, Pheterogeneity = .347, I = 10.6%) compared with patients who received control treatment.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Patients with cardiovascular disease
- Participants
- 47,523
MetaHomocysteine-lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events2017n=3,929
A meta-analysis of 3929 participants found that compared with placebo, homocysteine-lowering interventions were associated with reduced stroke outcome (homocysteine-lowering = 4.3% versus comparator = 5.1%, RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.82 to 0.99, I 2 = 8%, 10 trials, N = 44,224; high-quality evidence).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 12 g/day
- Population
- Patients With And Without Pre-Existing Cardiovascular Disease
- Participants
- 3,929
MetaFolic Acid Supplementation and the Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials2016n=334
A meta-analysis of 334 studies found that the pooled relative risks of folic acid supplementation compared with controls were 0.90 (95% CI 0.84-0.96; P=0.002) for stroke, 1.04 (95% CI 0.99-1.09; P=0.16) for coronary heart disease, and 0.96 (95% CI 0.92-0.99; P=0.02) for overall CVD.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 334
RCTEffects of 2-year vitamin B12 and folic acid supplementation in hyperhomocysteinemic elderly on arterial stiffness and cardiovascular outcomes within the B-PROOF trial2015n=569
A randomized trial of 569 older adults found that 500 µg vitamin B12 + 400 µg folic acid/day for 2 years analysis of covariance showed no effect of supplementation on PWV levels, and this was not different for patients without increased arterial stiffness at baseline.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 2 years
- Dose
- 500 µg vitamin B12 + 400 µg folic acid/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 569
- Ages
- 65+
MetaHomocysteine-lowering therapy with folic acid is effective in cardiovascular disease prevention in patients with kidney disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials2013n=11,032
A meta-analysis of 11032 participants found that when pooling the nine randomized trials, folic acid therapy reduced the risk of CVD by 10%（RR = 0.90; 95% CI:0.81-1.00, P = 0.046).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Patients with kidney disease
- Participants
- 11,032
MetaHomocysteine-lowering therapy does not lead to reduction in cardiovascular outcomes in chronic kidney disease patients: a meta-analysis of randomised, controlled trials2012
A meta-analysis found that the estimated RR were not significantly different for any outcomes, including CHD (RR 1·00, 95 % CI 0·75, 1·31, P = 0·97), CVD (RR 0·94, 95 % CI 0·84, 1·05, P = 0·30), stroke (RR 0·83, 95 % CI 0·57, 1·19, P = 0·31) and all-cause mortality (RR 1·00, 95 % CI 0·92, 1·09, P = 0·98).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Patients with chronic kidney disease
MetaThe effect of folic acid based homocysteine lowering on cardiovascular events in people with kidney disease: systematic review and meta-analysis2012n=10,951
A meta-analysis of 10951 participants found that folic acid based homocysteine therapy did not prevent cardiovascular events (relative risk 0.97, 95% confidence interval 0.92 to 1.03, P = 0.326) or any of the secondary outcomes.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 10,951
MetaFolic acid therapy and cardiovascular disease in ESRD or advanced chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis2011n=3,886
A meta-analysis of 3886 participants found that a greater beneficial effect was observed among those trials with a treatment duration >24 months (RR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.72 to 0.98; P = 0.02), a decrease in Hcy level >20% (RR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.73 to 0.95; P = 0.007), and no or partial folic acid fortification (RR, 0.80; 95% CI,.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Patients with ESRD or advanced chronic kidney disease
- Participants
- 3,886
MetaEffects of lowering homocysteine levels with B vitamins on cardiovascular disease, cancer, and cause-specific mortality: Meta-analysis of 8 randomized trials involving 37 485 individuals2010n=485
A meta-analysis of 485 studies found that there was no significant effect on the rate ratios (95% confidence intervals) for overall cancer incidence (1.05 [0.98-1.13]), cancer mortality (1.00 [0.85-1.18]) or all-cause mortality (1.02 [0.97-1.08]) during the whole scheduled treatment period or during the later years.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 485
- Ages
- 18+
RCTHomocysteine lowering and cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction2006n=3,749
A randomized trial of 3749 adults found that 0.8 mg folic acid + 0.4 mg vitamin B12 + 40 mg vitamin B6/day the mean total homocysteine level was lowered by 27 percent among patients given folic acid plus vitamin B12, but such treatment had no significant effect on the primary end point (risk ratio, 1.08; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.93 to 1.25; P=0.31).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 40 months
- Dose
- 0.8 mg folic acid + 0.4 mg vitamin B12 + 40 mg vitamin B6/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 3,749
RCTLowering homocysteine in patients with ischemic stroke to prevent recurrent stroke, myocardial infarction, and death: the Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention (VISP) randomized controlled trial2004n=1,853
A randomized trial of 1853 adults found that 2.5 mg folic acid + 25 mg vitamin B6 + 0.5 mg vitamin B12/day for 2 years a 3- micromol/L lower total homocysteine level was associated with a 10% lower risk of stroke (P =.05), a 26% lower risk of CHD events (P<.001), and a 16% lower risk of death (P =.001) in the low-dose group and a nonsignificantly lower risk in the high-dose gro
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 2 years
- Dose
- 2.5 mg folic acid + 25 mg vitamin B6 + 0.5 mg vitamin B12/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 1,853
RCTSecondary prevention with folic acid: effects on clinical outcomes2003n=593
A randomized trial of 593 found that 0.5 mg/day the primary end point (all-cause mortality and a composite of vascular events) was encountered in 31 (10.3%) patients in the folic acid group and in 28 (9.6%) patients in the control group (relative risk 1.05; 95% confidence interval: 0.63 to 1.75).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 24 months
- Dose
- 0.5 mg/day
- Population
- Patients with stable coronary artery disease
- Participants
- 593
RCTA randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of the effect of homocysteine-lowering therapy with folic acid on endothelial function in patients with coronary artery disease2001n=90
A randomized trial of 90 patients with coronary artery disease found that 5 mg folic acid/day for 12 weeks at the end of the study, plasma homocysteine was lower in the folic acid group compared with the placebo group (mean [95% confidence interval] 9.3 (8.5 to 10.1) vs. 12.3 [11.3 to 13.4] micromol/l, p < 0.001).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 5 mg folic acid/day
- Population
- Patients With Coronary Artery Disease
- Participants
- 90
- Ages
- 46–79
RCTDoes folic acid decrease plasma homocysteine and improve endothelial function in patients with predialysis renal failure?2000n=100
A randomized trial of 100 patients with chronic renal failure found that 5 mg folic acid/day for 12 weeks at the end of the study, both serum and red cell folate concentrations were greater in the folic acid group than the placebo group [mean (95% CI) 39.0 (29.8 to 51.0) versus 7.7 (6.6 to 8.9) microg/L and 739 (613 to 891) versus 220 (184 to 262) microg/L, respectively; both.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 5 mg folic acid/day
- Population
- Patients With Chronic Renal Failure
- Participants
- 100
- Avg age
- ~62
Vitamin DView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Research shows that low vitamin D levels (especially below 15 ng/mL) are linked to a higher risk of heart and blood vessel diseases.
- However, taking vitamin D supplements does not appear to lower the risk of heart attacks, strokes, or death related to heart disease, whether or not a person has risk factors for these conditions.
- Some studies even found that high doses of vitamin D might slightly increase heart-related deaths in people at high risk.
- In older adults, taking vitamin D daily in moderate amounts might reduce heart problems, but other studies show no benefit, especially if vitamin D levels are already normal.
- More large and well-designed studies are needed to know for sure if vitamin D supplements help protect the heart.
Browse 24 studies·9 meta-analyses
MetaEffect of vitamin D supplementation for major adverse cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis based on randomised controlled trials2025
A meta-analysis of 5 cardiovascular RCTs found vitamin D supplementation did not significantly reduce major adverse cardiovascular events (HR 0.96) in the general population.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Obese patients
RCTEffects of vitamin D, omega-3 and a simple strength exercise programme in cardiovascular disease prevention: The DO-HEALTH randomized controlled trial2024
In DO-HEALTH (2,157 adults ≥70, 2000 IU/day vitamin D for 3 years), vitamin D did not reduce major cardiovascular events or incident hypertension versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 3 years
- Dose
- 2000 IU/day
- Population
- Women
- Ages
- 70+
RCTVitamin D supplementation and adverse skeletal and non-skeletal outcomes in individuals at increased cardiovascular risk: Results from the International Polycap Study (TIPS)-3 randomized controlled trial2023n=5,670
In TIPS-3 (5,670 adults at cardiovascular risk given 60,000 IU/month vitamin D), supplementation did not reduce fractures or composite CV events but was associated with higher mortality.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 60000 IU/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 5,670
- Avg age
- ~64
MetaVitamin D Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease Risks in More Than 134000 Individuals in 29 Randomized Clinical Trials and 157000 Individuals in 30 Prospective Cohort Studies: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis2023n=57,000
An updated meta-analysis of 134,000 trial participants and 157,000 cohort participants found RCT vitamin D did not reduce CVD incidence or mortality despite observational links.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 57,000
MetaVitamin D Supplementation and Its Impact on Mortality and Cardiovascular Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 80 Randomized Clinical Trials2023n=82,210
A meta-analysis of 80 RCTs (163,131 adults) found vitamin D associated with slightly lower all-cause mortality (OR 0.95) but no significant reduction in cardiovascular morbidity or mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 82,210
- Ages
- 18+
RCTVitamin D supplementation and major cardiovascular events: D-Health randomised controlled trial2023n=10
In D-Health (21,302 Australians, 60,000 IU/month for 5 years), vitamin D showed a nonsignificant trend toward fewer major cardiovascular events (HR 0.91).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 500 IU/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 10
- Ages
- 60–84
MetaAssociation of Vitamin D Supplementation with Cardiovascular Events: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis2022n=70,278
A meta-analysis of 18 RCTs (70,278 participants) found vitamin D supplementation not associated with lower cardiovascular mortality, stroke, MI, or total cardiovascular events.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Participants
- 70,278
RCTEffects of Vitamin D3 Supplementation on Cardiovascular and Cancer Outcomes by eGFR in VITAL2022n=15,917
A VITAL secondary analysis in 15,917 participants found vitamin D 2000 IU/day did not differ in cardiovascular or cancer outcomes across eGFR subgroups over 5.3 years.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 2000 IU/day
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 15,917
- Avg age
- ~68
MetaVitamin D Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease Risks in More Than 83,000 Individuals in 21 Randomized Clinical Trials: A Meta-analysis2019n=83,000
A meta-analysis of 21 RCTs (83,291 patients) found long-term vitamin D not associated with reduced major adverse cardiovascular events, MI, stroke, or all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 83,000
RCTVitamin D Supplements and Prevention of Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease2019n=25,871
In VITAL (25,871 adults, 2000 IU/day, median 5.3 years), vitamin D did not reduce invasive cancer or major cardiovascular events versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 2000 IU/day
- Population
- Healthy adults
- Participants
- 25,871
- Ages
- 50+
Clinical trialCalcium and Vitamin D Supplementation Are Not Associated With Risk of Incident Ischemic Cardiac Events or Death: Findings From the UK Biobank Cohort2018n=475,255
In 475,255 UK Biobank participants, self-reported calcium or vitamin D supplementation was not associated with increased ischemic heart disease, MI, or death.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 475,255
- Ages
- 40–69
MetaSupplemental Vitamins and Minerals for CVD Prevention and Treatment2018
A systematic review found moderate evidence for folic acid/B-vitamin cardiovascular benefits but no clear preventive benefit from calcium, vitamin D, multivitamins, or selenium on CVD or all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- No Benefit
MetaSerum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and the risk of cardiovascular disease: dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies2017n=180,667
A dose-response meta-analysis of 34 prospective studies (180,667 participants) found each 10 ng/mL increase in 25(OH)D associated with 10% lower total CVD events.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 180,667
RCTVitamin D3 supplementation does not modify cardiovascular risk profile of adults with inadequate vitamin D status2015n=54
In 105 adults with inadequate vitamin D given 20 µg/day for 12 winter weeks, supplementation raised 25(OH)D but did not modify blood pressure or cardiovascular risk markers.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 20 mcg/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 54
- Ages
- 20–71
MetaCardiovascular disease and vitamin D supplementation: trial analysis, systematic review, and meta-analysis2014n=13
Analysis of RECORD and meta-analysis of 21 RCTs (13,033 adults) found vitamin D may protect against cardiac failure but not myocardial infarction or stroke.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 800 IU/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 13
- Ages
- 18+
MetaThe effect of vitamin D supplementation on skeletal, vascular, or cancer outcomes: a trial sequential meta-analysis2014n=3,853
Trial sequential meta-analysis concluded vitamin D supplementation is unlikely to reduce skeletal or non-skeletal outcomes by >15% in community-dwelling adults.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 3,853
MetaEffect of calcium or vitamin D supplementation on vascular outcomes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials2013n=50,252
A meta-analysis of 11 RCTs (50,252 adults) found calcium or vitamin D did not affect major cardiovascular events, MI, or stroke vs placebo; subgroup data suggested calcium alone may increase MI.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 50,252
RCTA prospective randomized controlled trial of the effects of vitamin D supplementation on cardiovascular disease risk2012n=114
In 114 postmenopausal women given 2500 IU/day vitamin D for 4 months, supplementation did not improve endothelial function, arterial stiffness, or inflammation.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 4 months
- Dose
- 2500 IU/day
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 114
- Avg age
- 64±3
MetaSystematic review: Vitamin D and calcium supplementation in prevention of cardiovascular events2010
A systematic review of 17 studies found dialysis patients on vitamin D had lower CVD mortality, but RCT secondary analyses showed only a nonsignificant trend toward reduced CVD with supplementation.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 1000 IU/day
- Population
- Adults
RCTVitamin D supplementation enhances the beneficial effects of weight loss on cardiovascular disease risk markers2009n=200
In 200 overweight adults on a weight-loss program given ~83 µg/day vitamin D for 12 months, vitamin D enhanced triglyceride and TNF-α reductions but raised LDL cholesterol.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 12 months
- Dose
- 83 mcg/day
- Population
- Overweight adults
- Participants
- 200
Clinical trialIndependent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality2008n=737
In 3,258 patients undergoing coronary angiography followed 7.7 years, lowest quartile 25(OH)D and 1,25(OH)2D were independently associated with higher all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 737
- Avg age
- ~62
ObservationalPrevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the United States: data from NHANES III2007n=7,902
In 15,088 NHANES III adults, lowest quartile 25(OH)D was associated with higher odds of hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and high triglycerides in cross-sectional analysis.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 7,902
ObservationalSerum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, ethnicity, and blood pressure in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey2007n=12,644
In 12,644 NHANES III adults, lower serum 25(OH)D was associated with higher blood pressure; ethnic differences in vitamin D explained about half the black-white hypertension gap.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 12,644
- Ages
- ≥20
RCTEffect of four monthly oral vitamin D3 supplementation on fractures and mortality in community-dwelling adults: randomized double-blind controlled trial2003n=471
In 2,686 community adults aged 65–85 given 100,000 IU vitamin D3 every 4 months for 5 years, supplementation reduced any fracture (RR 0.78) and osteoporotic site fractures.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 65–85 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 471
- Ages
- 65–85
Vitamin EView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Taking vitamin E by mouth does not seem to lower the risk of heart disease or related problems including heart attack or stroke.
- Large studies show that vitamin E supplements do not prevent heart disease or improve outcomes in most people.
- Health experts recommend not using vitamin E supplements for heart disease prevention because there is no overall benefit.
- Some studies suggest vitamin E might help certain people with diabetes, but this is not proven for most people.
- Different types of vitamin E do not seem to change its effect on heart health.
Browse 26 studies·7 meta-analyses
USPSTF recommends against beta carotene or vitamin E supplements for preventing CVD or cancer in adults2022
The USPSTF recommends against beta-carotene or vitamin E supplementation for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease or cancer in adults.
- Population
- Adults
GuideVitamin, Mineral, and Multivitamin Supplementation to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: USPSTF Recommendation Statement2022
A USPSTF evidence review found insufficient evidence that multivitamin or mineral supplementation prevents cardiovascular disease or cancer in healthy adults.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Healthy adults
Consumption of Nuts and Seeds and Health Outcomes Including Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes and Metabolic Disease, Cancer, and Mortality: An Umbrella Review2021
An umbrella review found daily nut consumption (~28 g) associated with lower cardiovascular, diabetes, and cancer risk; this reflects dietary vitamin E from nuts, not supplements.
- Effect
- Benefit
MetaDietary Supplements and Risk of Cause-Specific Death, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer: Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis2017n=287,304
A meta-analysis of 49 primary-prevention trials found vitamin E reduced cardiovascular mortality, folic acid reduced CVD risk, and most other supplements including selenium showed no clear mortality benefit.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 287,304
- Ages
- 18+
MetaEfficacy of vitamin and antioxidant supplements in prevention of cardiovascular disease: systematic review & meta-analysis2013n=294,478
A meta-analysis of 294478 participants found that in a fixed effect meta-analysis of the 50 trials, supplementation with vitamins and antioxidants was not associated with reductions in the risk of major cardiovascular events (relative risk 1.00, 95% confidence interval 0.98 to 1.02; I(2)=42%).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Participants
- 294,478
MetaAntioxidants for chronic kidney disease2012n=1,979
A meta-analysis of 10 trials (1,979 CKD patients) found antioxidant therapy did not reduce overall cardiovascular mortality, though dialysis subgroup analyses showed benefit (RR 0.57).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- CKD patients
- Participants
- 1,979
ObservationalConcordance of randomized and nonrandomized studies re: nutrient–disease associations2012
A citation network analysis of vitamin E and n-3 PUFA trials found no network characteristics predicting concordance between observational and randomized study results.
MetaHaptoglobin genotype, cardiovascular outcomes in diabetes, and vitamin E treatment2012n=2,110
A meta-analysis found diabetic patients with haptoglobin 2-2 genotype had higher cardiovascular event risk (OR 2.03) and vitamin E reduced combined endpoints (OR 0.66) in that subgroup only.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 2–2 g/day
- Population
- Diabetic patients
- Participants
- 2,110
MetaEffects of vitamin E on stroke subtypes: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials2010n=765
A meta-analysis of 9 trials (118,765 participants) found vitamin E increased hemorrhagic stroke risk 22% while reducing ischemic stroke 10%; total stroke risk was unchanged.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 765
MetaVitamin E reduces cardiovascular disease in individuals with diabetes and the haptoglobin 2-2 genotype2010
Meta-analysis of HOPE and ICARE found vitamin E reduced composite cardiovascular events in diabetic patients with haptoglobin 2-2 genotype (OR 0.58, p=0.006).
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 2–2 g/day
- Population
- Diabetic patients
RCTEffects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: randomized controlled trial2005n=9,541
In HOPE-TOO (9,541 patients, ~7 years), 400 IU/day vitamin E did not prevent cancer or major cardiovascular events and increased heart failure risk (RR 1.13).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 400 IU/day
- Population
- Heart failure patients
- Participants
- 9,541
- Ages
- 55+
RCTVitamin E in primary prevention: the Women's Health Study2005
In the Women's Health Study (39,876 women, 600 IU EOD for 10.1 years), vitamin E did not reduce major cardiovascular events or total cancer but lowered cardiovascular mortality (RR 0.76).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 600 IU/day
- Population
- Women
- Ages
- 45+
Antioxidant vitamin supplements and cardiovascular disease2004
A narrative review concluded that antioxidant vitamin supplements, including vitamin E, show little evidence for preventing cardiovascular disease.
ObservationalAntioxidant vitamins and coronary heart disease risk: a pooled analysis of 9 cohorts2004n=172
A pooled analysis of 9 cohorts (293,172 subjects) found no strong association between antioxidant vitamin or carotenoid intake and coronary heart disease risk.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 700 mg/day
- Participants
- 172
MetaEffect of supplemental vitamin E for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease2004
A systematic review of 84 trials found vitamin E supplementation had no statistically significant effect on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, or nonfatal MI.
- Effect
- No Benefit
RCTEffects of vitamin E on cardiovascular outcomes in people with mild-to-moderate renal insufficiency: results of the HOPE study2004n=9,541
In HOPE subgroup analysis of 993 patients with mild-to-moderate renal insufficiency, 400 IU/day vitamin E for 4.5 years had no effect on cardiovascular outcomes.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 400 IU/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 9,541
MetaIs all-rac-alpha-tocopherol different from RRR-alpha-tocopherol regarding cardiovascular efficacy? A meta-analysis of clinical trials2004n=83,800
A meta-analysis of 14 trials (83,800 subjects) found no significant cardiovascular differences between RRR- and all-rac-alpha-tocopherol formulations.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 800 mg/day
- Participants
- 83,800
MetaRandomized trials of vitamin E in the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease2004
A review of 7 large vitamin E RCTs found no significant effect on myocardial infarction, stroke, or cardiovascular death (pooled OR 0.98 for any cardiovascular event).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
RCTEffects of ramipril and vitamin E on atherosclerosis: SECURE trial2001n=732
The SECURE substudy of 732 patients found ramipril slowed carotid atherosclerosis progression; vitamin E 400 IU/day did not add significant benefit versus ramipril alone.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 400 IU/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 732
- Ages
- 55+
RCTLow-dose aspirin and vitamin E in people at cardiovascular risk: Primary Prevention Project trial2001n=4,495
In the Primary Prevention Project (4,495 adults at cardiovascular risk), 300 mg/day vitamin E for 3.6 years showed no effect on prespecified cardiovascular endpoints; aspirin reduced events.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 300 mg/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 4,495
- Avg age
- ~64
RCTSimvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease2001n=160
A randomized trial of 160 patients with coronary disease found that the average stenosis progressed by 3.9 percent with placebos, 1.8 percent with antioxidants (P=0.16 for the comparison with the placebo group), and 0.7 percent with simvastatin-niacin plus antioxidants (P=0.004) and regressed by 0.4 percent with simvastatin-niacin alone.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Patients With Coronary Disease
- Participants
- 160
RCTSecondary prevention with antioxidants in endstage renal disease (SPACE): randomized placebo-controlled trial2000n=196
In the SPACE trial (196 dialysis patients with prior CVD), 800 IU/day vitamin E for ~519 days reduced composite cardiovascular events (16% vs 33%; RR 0.46) and MI.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 800 IU/day
- Population
- Dialysis patients
- Participants
- 196
- Ages
- 40–75
RCTVitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients2000n=4,761
The HOPE trial in 9,541 high-risk patients found vitamin E 400 IU/day did not reduce cardiovascular death, MI, or stroke over ~4.5 years versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 400 IU/day
- Population
- Heart failure patients
- Participants
- 4,761
- Ages
- 55+
RCTEffect of vitamin E and beta carotene on incidence of myocardial infarction and coronary heart disease1998n=907
In ATBC (27,271 Finnish male smokers), 50 mg/day vitamin E for 6.1 years had only a marginal 8% reduction in fatal CHD and no effect on nonfatal MI.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 50 mg
- Population
- Cancer patients
- Participants
- 907
- Ages
- 50–69
RCTRandomised trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on incidence of major coronary events1997n=1,862
In ATBC secondary prevention (1,862 male smokers with prior MI), vitamin E did not reduce major coronary events; beta-carotene increased fatal CHD deaths (RR 1.75).
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 50 mg/day
- Population
- Cancer patients
- Participants
- 1,862
- Ages
- 50–69
RCTRandomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: CHAOS study1996n=2,002
In the CHAOS trial of 2,002 patients with coronary atherosclerosis, vitamin E (800/400 IU/day) over a median 510 days reduced nonfatal MI (14 vs 41; RR 0.23) but did not lower cardiovascular or all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 510 days
- Dose
- 400 IU/day
- Population
- Patients
- Participants
- 2,002
Black TeaView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Drinking more than one cup of black tea daily may slightly lower the risk of death related to various cardiovascular diseases.
- Drinking 2 to 9 cups daily has similar benefits, and drinking 10 or more cups might reduce the risk even more.
- This is based on a large study of adults in the UK over 11 years.
Browse 1 study
ObservationalTea Consumption and All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality in the UK Biobank: A Prospective Cohort Study2022n=43
In 498,043 UK Biobank adults followed 11.2 years, drinking ≥2 cups/day tea was modestly associated with lower all-cause mortality (HR 0.87–0.89 for 2–7 cups) and lower CVD, ischemic heart disease, and stroke mortality.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 43
- Ages
- 40–69
Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs)View supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- It is not clear if eating branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) in the diet lowers the risk of death from heart disease.
- Studies in adults found no clear link between levels of dietary BCAA consumption (total BCAAs or specific types like leucine, isoleucine, or valine) and deaths caused by heart problems.
Browse 1 study
ObservationalAssociation of dietary intake of branched-chain amino acids with long-term risks of cardiovascular disease, cancer and all-cause mortality2021n=397
In 14,397 US adults from NHANES III, higher dietary BCAA and isoleucine intake in the highest quintile was linked to 32% lower all-cause mortality, especially in those with higher triglycerides.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 397
- Ages
- 18+
CalciumView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Taking calcium supplements does not lower the chance of heart disease or stroke and may even increase the risk for some people.
- Large studies find that taking calcium (around 600 to 1200 mg a day for several years) does not reduce heart attacks, strokes, or deaths from heart disease.
- Whether calcium comes from diet or supplements, with or without vitamin D, there does not appear to be a clear benefit for heart protection.
- In fact, some research shows that calcium supplements might increase the risk of heart problems, notably in women after menopause.
- One study found that calcium supplements raised heart disease risk by about 10 to 20 percent in this group of postmenopausal women.
Browse 9 studies·5 meta-analyses
MetaAssociation of Vitamin D or Calcium Supplementation with Cardiovascular Outcomes and Mortality: A Meta-Analysis with Trial Sequential Analysis2021n=89,251
A meta-analysis of 23 trials (89,251 adults) found vitamin D and/or calcium supplementation did not meaningfully affect all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, MI, or composite MACE.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 89,251
- Ages
- 18+
MetaCalcium Supplements and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials2021n=28
A meta-analysis of 13 RCTs found calcium supplements raised CVD risk (RR 1.15) and CHD risk (RR 1.16), particularly in healthy postmenopausal women receiving supplements vs placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 1000 mg/day
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Participants
- 28
MetaSupplemental Vitamins and Minerals for CVD Prevention and Treatment2018
A systematic review found moderate evidence for folic acid/B-vitamin cardiovascular benefits but no clear preventive benefit from calcium, vitamin D, multivitamins, or selenium on CVD or all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- No Benefit
MetaCalcium Intake and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis2016
An updated systematic review found RCTs showed no significant CVD differences with calcium or calcium plus vitamin D vs placebo; observational cohorts also lacked consistent dose-response patterns.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 800–1600 mg/day
- Population
- Healthy adults
MetaThe effects of calcium supplementation on verified coronary heart disease hospitalization and death in postmenopausal women: a collaborative meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials2015n=63,563
A meta-analysis of 18 RCTs (63,563 postmenopausal women) found calcium with or without vitamin D did not increase CHD events (RR 1.02) or all-cause mortality (RR 0.96) vs placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Participants
- 63,563
MetaEffect of calcium or vitamin D supplementation on vascular outcomes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials2013n=50,252
A meta-analysis of 11 RCTs (50,252 adults) found calcium or vitamin D did not affect major cardiovascular events, MI, or stroke vs placebo; subgroup data suggested calcium alone may increase MI.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 50,252
ObservationalAssociations of dietary calcium intake and calcium supplementation with myocardial infarction and stroke risk and overall cardiovascular mortality in the Heidelberg cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study (EPIC-Heidelberg)2012
In 23,980 EPIC-Heidelberg adults followed 11 years, moderate dietary/dairy calcium lowered MI risk but calcium supplements were associated with higher MI risk vs non-users.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Ages
- 35–64
Caffeine modulates tau phosphorylation and affects Akt signaling in postmitotic neurons2011
Laboratory work in neuroblastoma and postmitotic neurons showed caffeine blocked cell-cycle entry and altered tau phosphorylation via reduced Akt signaling, suggesting a mechanism for neuroprotection.
MetaSystematic review: Vitamin D and calcium supplementation in prevention of cardiovascular events2010
A systematic review of 17 studies found dialysis patients on vitamin D had lower CVD mortality, but RCT secondary analyses showed only a nonsignificant trend toward reduced CVD with supplementation.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 1000 IU/day
- Population
- Adults
MultivitaminView supplement →
Reconsider purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Research shows that taking multivitamins every day does not seem to lower the risk of heart disease or stroke, whether for prevention or after heart problems have already occurred. In people without heart disease, daily multivitamin use for up to 19 years has not lowered the chances of heart attack, stroke, heart-related death, or needing heart procedures. One large study found only a small benefit—a 4% lower risk over 12 years—but other studies do not confirm this.
- For people who already have heart disease, multivitamins taken for 1–8 years have not reduced future heart attacks, strokes, or deaths. High-dose multivitamin mixes or popular brands like Centrum Silver, taken for 4–11 years, have shown no improvement in heart health, including when combined with cocoa flavanols.
Browse 10 studies·1 meta-analysis
RCTMultimicronutrient and omega-3 fatty acid supplementation reduces low-grade inflammation in older participants: An exploratory study2025
A 12-week RCT found multimicronutrient plus omega-3 supplementation reduced low-grade inflammation markers versus control in adults.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 400 µg folic acid, 100 µg cobalamin, 50 µg cholecalciferol/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Avg age
- ~75.6±3.9
ObservationalMultivitamin/mineral supplementation and the risk of cardiovascular disease: a large prospective study using UK Biobank data2022n=465,278
A longitudinal study of 465,278 adults found multivitamin/mineral supplementation was not associated with lower cardiovascular disease risk.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 465,278
RCTMultivitamins in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the COcoa Supplement and Multivitamin Outcomes Study (COSMOS) randomized clinical trial2022n=535
The COSMOS RCT of 535 older adults found daily multivitamin supplementation did not significantly reduce cancer or cardiovascular disease incidence versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 535
- Ages
- ≥60
GuideVitamin, Mineral, and Multivitamin Supplementation to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement2022
A USPSTF evidence review found insufficient evidence that multivitamin or mineral supplementation prevents cardiovascular disease or cancer in healthy adults.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
MetaAssociation of Multivitamin and Mineral Supplementation and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis2018n=862
A meta-analysis of 862 participants found multivitamin and mineral supplementation did not significantly reduce cardiovascular events.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 862
MetaSupplemental Vitamins and Minerals for CVD Prevention and Treatment2018
A systematic review found moderate evidence for folic acid/B-vitamin cardiovascular benefits but no clear preventive benefit from calcium, vitamin D, multivitamins, or selenium on CVD or all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- No Benefit
RCTMultivitamin Use and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Men2016
A long-term RCT in U.S. male physicians found daily multivitamin use did not reduce major cardiovascular disease events.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Men
- Ages
- ≥40
ObservationalMultivitamin use and cardiovascular disease in a prospective study of women2015n=37,193
A prospective study of 37,193 women found multivitamin use was not associated with lower cardiovascular disease incidence.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 37,193
- Ages
- ≥45
RCTOral high-dose multivitamins and minerals after myocardial infarction: a randomized trial2013n=1,708
A randomized trial of 1,708 post-MI patients found high-dose oral multivitamins and minerals did not reduce recurrent cardiovascular events versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 26–60 months
- Population
- Women
- Participants
- 1,708
- Avg age
- ~50
RCTMultivitamins in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: the Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial2012n=754
The Physicians' Health Study II RCT of 754 men found daily multivitamins did not reduce major cardiovascular events over median 11.2 years.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Men
- Participants
- 754
- Avg age
- ~50
AvocadoView supplement →
Do not purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- No summary available.
Browse 4 studies·1 meta-analysis
RCTEffect of Daily Avocado Intake on Cardiovascular Health Assessed by Life's Essential 8: An Ancillary Study of HAT, a Randomized Controlled Trial2025n=969
An HAT ancillary analysis of 969 adults with abdominal obesity found 1 avocado/day for 26 weeks did not change overall Life's Essential 8 score but improved diet quality, sleep health, and blood lipids.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 26 weeks
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 969
- Avg age
- ~51
RCTEffect of Incorporating 1 Avocado per Day Versus Habitual Diet on Vascular Function in Adults With Abdominal Obesity: An Ancillary Study of HAT, a Randomized Controlled Trial2024n=134
An HAT ancillary RCT of 134 adults with abdominal obesity found 6 months of daily avocado did not improve flow-mediated dilation or arterial stiffness versus a low-avocado habitual diet.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 6 months
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 134
- Avg age
- 50±13
ObservationalEffect of Avocado Consumption on Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis2023n=1,359
A meta-analysis of 7 avocado RCTs found avocado diets reduced total and LDL cholesterol versus habitual or low-fat control diets, with minimal triglyceride or blood pressure changes.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Participants
- 1,359
Avocado Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in US Adults2022n=786
In 110,487 US adults followed up to 30 years, ≥2 servings/week of avocado was linked to 16% lower CVD and 21% lower coronary heart disease risk versus nonconsumers.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 786
- Ages
- 30+
ElderberryView supplement →
Do not purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- No summary is available.
Browse 1 study
RCTCardiovascular disease risk biomarkers and liver and kidney function are not altered in postmenopausal women after ingesting an elderberry extract rich in anthocyanins for 12 weeks2009n=26
In 52 postmenopausal women over 12 weeks, 500 mg/day elderberry anthocyanins did not significantly change cardiovascular risk biomarkers or liver/kidney function versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 500 mg/day
- Population
- Postmenopausal women
- Participants
- 26
- Avg age
- ~58
FlaxseedView supplement →
Do not purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- A small study in older adults who had a procedure to open blocked heart arteries found that taking 30 grams of flaxseed daily for 12 weeks helped improve the function of their blood vessels, more than doubling the improvement seen in those who did not take flaxseed.
- Flaxseed also helped reduce inflammation in the blood, which can be important for heart health.
- However, studies looking at large groups of people have not clearly shown that eating lots of lignans (plant compounds found in flaxseed and other foods) lowers the risk of heart disease or early death.
- These studies did not specifically examine flaxseed effects alone.
- Flaxseed contains healthy fats and other compounds that may benefit heart health, but more research is needed to know if flaxseed can prevent heart disease or improve long-term outcomes.
Browse 2 studies
RCTEffect of flaxseed consumption on flow-mediated dilation and inflammatory biomarkers in patients with coronary artery disease: a randomized controlled trial2018n=23
In a 12-week RCT of 44 coronary artery disease patients, 30 g/day flaxseed did not significantly improve flow-mediated dilation or inflammatory markers versus usual care.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 12 weeks
- Dose
- 30 g/day
- Population
- Adults
- Participants
- 23
- Avg age
- ~56
ObservationalIntakes of 4 dietary lignans and cause-specific and all-cause mortality in the Zutphen Elderly Study2006n=570
In the Zutphen Elderly Study of 570 men (ages 64–84) followed 15 years, total dietary lignan intake was not associated with coronary heart disease, cancer, or all-cause mortality.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 570
- Ages
- 64–84
GinkgoView supplement →
Do not purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- Taking a specific form of ginkgo supplement for 6 years does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Browse 2 studies
RCTDoes Ginkgo biloba reduce the risk of cardiovascular events?2010n=207
In 3,069 GEM study participants over 75, ginkgo biloba 240 mg/day for median 6.1 years did not significantly reduce total cardiovascular events or mortality versus placebo.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Dose
- 240 mg/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 207
- Ages
- 75+
ObservationalReduction of atherosclerotic nanoplaque formation and size by Ginkgo biloba (EGb 761) in cardiovascular high-risk patients2007
In cardiovascular high-risk patients, ginkgo EGb 761 120 mg/day significantly reduced atherosclerotic nanoplaque formation and size versus baseline in an ellipsometry study.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Dose
- 120 mg/day
- Population
- Adults with cardiovascular disease
QuercetinView supplement →
Do not purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- It is unclear if taking quercetin by mouth helps prevent heart disease.
- Studies show that elderly men who eat more quercetin-rich foods like tea, onions, and apples have a lower risk of dying from heart disease.
- However, a small study found that taking 1 gram of quercetin daily for 4 weeks did not improve blood pressure, heart rate, cholesterol, or blood clotting in healthy people.
- More research is needed.
Browse 2 studies
RCTSupplementation with quercetin markedly increases plasma quercetin concentration without effect on selected risk factors for heart disease in healthy subjects1998
In healthy adults with cholesterol 4.0–7.2 mmol/L, quercetin 1 g/day for 28 days raised plasma quercetin 23-fold but did not change lipids, blood pressure, or platelet function.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 28 days
- Dose
- 1 g/day quercetin
- Population
- Adults
ObservationalDietary antioxidant flavonoids and risk of coronary heart disease: the Zutphen Elderly Study1993n=805
In 805 Zutphen elderly men followed 5 years, highest flavonoid intake tertile (mainly from tea) had 58% lower coronary heart disease mortality (RR 0.42) than the lowest tertile, independent of major risk factors.
- Effect
- Benefit
- Duration
- 5 years
- Dose
- 25.9 mg/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 805
- Ages
- 65–84
ZeaxanthinView supplement →
Do not purchase·★★★★★
How we scored this▸
- It is unclear if taking zeaxanthin by itself helps prevent heart disease.
- Studies in adults aged 50 to 85 who took lutein and zeaxanthin daily for nearly 5 years showed no reduction in death from heart disease or heart-related events like stroke or heart attack compared with those who did not take supplements.
- The effects of zeaxanthin alone on heart health are not known.
Browse 1 study
RCTEffect of long-chain ω-3 fatty acids and lutein + zeaxanthin supplements on cardiovascular outcomes: results of the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial2014n=4,203
The AREDS2 cardiovascular ancillary study (4,203 participants) found adding lutein/zeaxanthin or omega-3 to AREDS did not reduce cardiovascular events over ~5 years.
- Effect
- No Benefit
- Duration
- 4.8 years
- Dose
- 10 mg lutein + 2 mg zeaxanthin/day
- Population
- Older adults
- Participants
- 4,203
- Ages
- 50–85
Evidence visualised
Same ratings as above, aggregated so you can see coverage and imbalance.
| Supplement | DEX | Studies | Meta-analyses | Share |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin E | ★★★★★44% | 26 | 7 | 13% |
| Vitamin D | ★★★★★44% | 24 | 9 | 12% |
| Cocoa | ★★★★★68% | 21 | 7 | 10% |
| Vitamin B9 (Folate) | ★★★★★44% | 16 | 9 | 8% |
| Vitamin K | ★★★★★56% | 15 | 5 | 7% |
| Olive Oil | ★★★★★68% | 12 | 2 | 6% |
| Vitamin B3 (Niacin) | ★★★★★44% | 12 | 5 | 6% |
| Lycopene | ★★★★★56% | 10 | 4 | 5% |
| Multivitamin | ★★★★★40% | 10 | 1 | 5% |
| Calcium | ★★★★★40% | 9 | 5 | 4% |
| Resveratrol | ★★★★★52% | 9 | 6 | 4% |
| Nattokinase | ★★★★★52% | 7 | 1 | 3% |
| Potassium | ★★★★★72% | 6 | 0 | 3% |
| Avocado | ★★★★★36% | 4 | 1 | 2% |
| Garlic | ★★★★★48% | 4 | 0 | 2% |
| Alpha-Linolenic Acid | ★★★★★52% | 3 | 3 | 1% |
| Lutein | ★★★★★52% | 3 | 1 | 1% |
| Eleuthero | ★★★★★44% | 2 | 0 | <1% |
| Flaxseed | ★★★★★32% | 2 | 0 | <1% |
| Flaxseed Oil | ★★★★★48% | 2 | 1 | <1% |
| Ginkgo | ★★★★★32% | 2 | 0 | <1% |
| Quercetin | ★★★★★32% | 2 | 0 | <1% |
| Berberine | ★★★★★48% | 1 | 1 | <1% |
| Black Tea | ★★★★★40% | 1 | 0 | <1% |
| Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) | ★★★★★40% | 1 | 0 | <1% |
| Elderberry | ★★★★★32% | 1 | 0 | <1% |
| Kefir | ★★★★★48% | 1 | 1 | <1% |
| Zeaxanthin | ★★★★★32% | 1 | 0 | <1% |